About This Project

In the News

Terms of Race and Ethnicity

A number of households in Spanish Pensacola were mixed-race families, as the Spanish did not share the social taboos that Anglo-American society did at the time. Terms found in the 1820 census like pardo, mulato, and mestizo demonstrate the many shades of ethnicity that were recognized in Spanish Pensacola.

Blanco/blanca literally means “white” in Spanish and referred to someone of pure European ancestry.

Negro/negra, meaning “black,” indicated someone of solely African ancestry.

Mestizo/mestiza was either European or African mixed with American Indian blood, while mulato/mulata referred to someone of mixed European and African descent.

Pardo/parda seems to have encompassed what other people in locales called quadroon or octoroon, but also those that might more properly be called mulato or mestizo – it appears to have referred to any not-readily identifiable shade of brown. (In later years, the term “Creole” would supplant the Spanish terms for a person of mixed racial heritage here on the Gulf coast.)

Spanish Pensacola was home to many non-Spaniards – including “Juan” (John) Innerarity of Scotland; the Rev. “Santiago” (James) Coleman, the Irish parish priest; and “Enrique” (Henri) Michelet of France, among the Europeans. People of color hailed from Africa, Port-au-Prince, Santo Domingo, and Jamaica, as well as the Gulf coast area and other Southern states and territories.

For more reading on this subject, see The Spanish Censuses of Pensacola, 1784-1820: A Genealogical Guide to Spanish Pensacola, by William S. Coker and G. Douglas Inglis.

The U.S. Military Presence in 1821 West Florida

Present in Pensacola at the time of the changing of the flags were the 4th Regiment of Infantry, U.S. Army; the 4th Regiment of Artillery, U.S. Army; and the U.S. Sloop of War Hornet. Here is some more information to help you understand what you might be seeing in the 1821: A Pensacola Sampler project.

U.S. Army

4th Regiment of Infantry:

The U.S. Army’s 4th Infantry Regiment was organized by Act of Congress approved May 30, 1796, along with the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd Regiments. Until 1802, the Regiment served mostly in Virginia, which was the frontier at the time, defending the civilian inhabitants against Indian attack. For a few years, the Regiment was disbanded  because Congress decided that a peacetime army required only two regiments of infantry, but in 1808 it was reorganized and was put back into to service in New England, and defending the frontier – by now in the Great Lakes area. It was again dissolved in 1812 as it was part of the surrender of Michigan to the British in the War of 1812. Most of the regiment was held as prisoners of war at Ft. George, Canada. A consolidation of other regiments after the War of 1812 led to its reorganization, and it was ordered south:

“… owing to the difficulties with the Creek and Seminole Indians in Georgia, Alabama and Florida, for several years its history was one of continual marches and countermarches, building of cantonments, and opening of military roads through the wilderness regions of those States; the policy of the General Government then being that the infantry arm of service should build their own barracks and open roads through the Indian country.” 

(Powell, William Henry. A History of the Organization and Movements of the Fourth Regiment of Infantry, United States Army, from May 30, 1796, to December 31, 1870: Together with a Record of the Military Services of All Officers who Have at Any Time Belonged to the Regiment. United States, M’Gill & Witherow, 1871.)

The Regiment marched to Alabama in early 1820 and in March of that year established Cantonment Montpelier.  Late in the year it operated under the command of Major General Andrew Jackson against the Spanish in Pensacola. Between the Spanish and the American Indians, Pensacola and West Florida continued to be a hotspot, and by 1818 Regimental headquarters and 7 companies were in Pensacola, 2 companies were at Barrancas, and 1 company was at Ft. St. Mark near Tallahassee. Through 1819 and 1820 various companies moved throughout the Panhandle and Alabama (Montpelier and Blakeley) and a few went to Ft. Crawford, Georgia.

In July through December of 1820, the entire Regiment was at Cantonment Montpelier in anticipation of the transfer of Florida to the United States.

In 1821,   

“The entire Regiment was stationed at Cantonment “Montpelier” until it was ordered to Pensacola after the receipt of the General Order, dated … May 17, 1821, which order assigned Pensacola, West Florida, as the station of the Regiment.”

 The Regiment was then composed of 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant-colonel., 1 major, 10 captains, 10 first lieutenants, 10 second lieutenants, 1 sergeant major, 1 quartermaster sergeant, 2 principal musicians, 30 sergeants, 40 corporals, 20 musicians, 420 privates, 33 commissioned officers, and 514 enlisted men, for a total of  547.

After the changing of the flag, things slowed down for the 4th Infantry; only Companies A, B, and E were at Pensacola; and F and G were at Barrancas. The remaining companies were not reorganized.

4th Regiment of Artillery

At the time of the reorganization of the Army in 1821 (the same reorganization that dissolved the Division of the South) four regiments of artillery were organized from the existing regiment of light artillery, the corps of artillery, and ordnance. Each regiment was to consist of 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant-colonel, 1 major, 1 adjutant, 1 supernumerary captain to perform ordnance duty, 1 sergean major, 1 quartermaster sergeant, and nine companies; each company was to consist of 1 captain, 2 first lieutenants, 2 second lieutenants, and 55 enlisted men. Company A was designated as the light company. 

Per the general order of May 17, 1821, the Regimental headquarters was set in Pensacola and the companies of the Regiment were placed at stations on the Gulf Coast from New Orleans to St. Augustine. A bit more shuffling continued through August of 1821.

Source: Dyer, Alexander B., First Lieutenant, Fourth Artillery, “Fourth Regiment of Artillery.” The Army of the US Historical Sketches of Staff and Line with Portraits of Generals-in-Chief. Theophilus Francis F. Rodenbough (Bvt. Brigadier General, U.S. Army) and William L. Haskin, Majr, First Artillery, eds.  New York: Maynard, Merrill & Co., 1896, accessed May 11, 2021.

Brevet: Sometime you will see a rank preceded by this term, such as “Brevet Major.” A brevet is a promotion in title, either as a reward for bravery or meritorious service, or sometimes to allow an officer to perform a temporary assignment which usually requires a higher rank than that officer currently holds. Being awarded a brevet did not usually come with a raise in status or pay. 

Breveting  was common in the early 19th century when the U.S. army was responsible for many far-flung forts and outposts that all required an officer of a certain rank to command them. Because of congressional limitations on the total number of officers at each rank, there might not be enough at the required rank to fill all the command posts. So an officer might receive a brevet promotion to allow them to command. Brevet promotions as a reward for service were eventually replaced by decoration in the late 19th century.

Musicians:  Music had been a part of our armed forces since before the Revolutionary War Military musicians provided music for battle and drills, but also for ceremonial events such as state occasions, military funerals, and changings of command. By the War of 1812, the fife and drum so associated with the early days had been replaced with bugles for signaling to troops, though other instruments were played as events required. During the 1821 reorganization of the Army, Congress made musicians a part of the regular forces. Musicians were attached to regiments and were paid as privates, though at that time, the officers of the regiment were required to provide instruments. Division of the South:  In 1821, Major General Andrew Jackson was the commander in chief of the Division of the South of the U.S. Army.  The U.S. Army had used a territorial system of hierarchy coming out of the War of 1812 and that system continued through the force reductions afterward. It seemed a logical system for a time, but as U.S. Territories expanded and the Army began to be divided by function (infantry, artillery, etc.) as well as by geography, a labyrinthine, top-heavy and multi-layered chain of command emerged that eventually had to be reformed. On March 2, 1821, the Division of the South was dissolved and Major General Andrew Jackson was out of a job. He came to Pensacola in 1821 as Governor.

Source: A History of U.S. Army Bands, Subcourse Number MU0010, Edition D, US Army Element, School of Music, Norfolk, VA; Edition Date 2005, accessed May 11, 2021.

U.S. Sloop of War Hornet

The Hornet  that anchored in Pensacola Bay during the changing of the flags was the third American Naval vessel to bear that name. It was classed as a brigantine, and was launched July 28, 1805 in Baltimore.  Her first mission was in the Mediterranean, protecting Americans from the threat of piracy there. She traveled to the Netherlands, France and England before being put to service in the War of 1812. 

After the war she sailed to the West Indies and Copenhagen, and again to the Mediterranean. She was then based in Key West and Pensacola, as part of a mission to curtail piracy in the Caribbean. In the spring of 1821, she was specifically tasked to convey James Forbes and the orders he carried from the Captain General of Cuba to Florida’s Spanish Governor, Jose Maria Callava, to surrender Florida to the Americans. It was the delay in the arrival of these orders that led General Andrew Jackson to keep his troops outside the city for so long before the day of the official transfer of power.

After 1821, the Hornet continued to police the Caribbean, capturing a pirate schooner of the coast of Santo Domingo in October 1821. She departed Pensacola for the last time in March 1829, heading for Mexico. She was never seen again. On September 29, 1829, she was caught in a gale off Tampico and foundered, all hands lost.

Source: Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, Navy Department, Naval History and Heritage Command, accessed 21 May 2021.

A picture containing text, outdoor, wave Description automatically generated
Lithograph by Imbert, published in “The Sailors Magazine” March 1830. It depicts USS Hornet foundering off Tampico, Mexico, on 29 September 1829. US Naval History and Heritage Command photo # NH 53416

Master Commandant: The United States Navy was created by Congress in 1794, the successor to the Continental Navy that fought in the Revolutionary War. At the time, Congress had a very conservative view toward a peacetime navy, and the only commissioned officers were captains and lieutenants.  The rank “Master Commandant” was a “grade” rather than a “rank,” and it indicated an officer – of any rank – who had been placed in command of a small ship. It roughly equated to the British rank of Master and Commander.

Boatswain:  (Pronounced “bosun”). This warrant officer was responsible for the rigging of a ship, as well as the sails, colors, anchors, and masts. He also supervised the crew, using the whistle he wore around his neck to issue calls and signals over the noise of the sea and battle.

Midshipman: A warrant officer, the midshipman was an officer in training. They received formal schooling in such subjects as mathematics and languages from the captain or chaplain, then received hands-on training in seamanship. They were also expected to keep a journal of every cruise.

Purser: The purser was a commissioned officer, “the ship’s business agent, paymaster, grocer, and shopkeeper rolled into one.” He kept the ship’s records on pay and personnel and acquired and distributed food to the crew. He also ran a ship’s store from which the crew could purchase such things as tea, tobacco, and needles and thread. 

Seaman: This term probably corresponds to the more commonly known rank of “Able Seaman,” (the Hornet’s payrolls list only Seaman and Ordinary Seaman). This was a sailor with some experience who could not only handle sails and steer, but might be given supervisory duties as well. 

Ordinary Seaman: An enlisted man, the Ordinary Seaman had mastered basic seamanship. They could furl and reef sails and do some elementary steering. They often served as “topmen,” who worked up high in the rigging.

Boy: A ship’s Boy was basically an apprentice seaman. They were often quite young, in their mid-to late teens in later years, but in 1821, they could still have been as young as nine years old. They did such things as running messages, acting as officers’ servants, and performing routine cleaning tasks – all while learning how to become a Seaman.

Marines: The marines were soldiers carried on board a ship to shoot would-be boarders or fight hand-to-hand if the enemy made it onboard their ship. They also stood watch and performed guard duty. They were expected to be familiar with naval warfare and the workings of a ship.

Supernumerary: This somewhat confusing term indicates either a person who has joined a vessel but who has no shipboard duties (such as a passenger or someone who is working on board the vessel but not considered crew, such as a craftsman or researcher); or a crewman who is working for passage to another port without being on the official payroll. 

Source: “Ranks and Rates,” USS Constitution Museum, accessed 21 May 2021.